Place names of the Frunzensky District

The Сold War was its simplest interpretation a confrontation between two political systems, capitalism and socialism, primarily manifesting itself in the geopolitical sphere. The bipolar world constructed during this period was the result of an active foreign policy of the United States and the USSR aimed at forming political and economic alliances.

On April 4th, 1949 the U.S., Belgium, UK, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and France signed the Treaty which formed the military-political bloc known as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) whose main purpose was the creation of a system of collective defense and the preservation of peace and security. In 1952, Greece and Turkey joined the organization, and in 1955 - Germany. Interestingly, in 1954 the USSR applied to join NATO but its request was rejected.

The Warsaw Pact, a military-political bloc of European socialist countries, was formed with the signing of the Warsaw Pact Treaty by the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia on May 14, 1955. However, the Warsaw Pact was not the first institutionalization of an alliance between these countries, also known as the Eastern bloc. In 1949 the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) was founded, aimed at establishing and developing economic relations between the USSR and European socialist countries.

Other revolutionaries, socialists, and heroes of the Soviet Union are also celebrated in the place names of the Frunzensky district, named after the revolutionary and Red Army commander Mikhail Frunze. This phenomenon, generally, is typical for areas of St. Petersburg which saw mass development in the Soviet period. Frunzensky district’s modern borders were formed in the mid-1960s – before then it included a small area from the Fontanka river embankment to the Obvodny Canal [1]. With the expansion of the district's borders, mass housing development followed. Most of the streets were laid over former agricultural lands [2]. The large-scale expansion of Leningrad's borders and the emergence of new urban avenues made it possible to honor allied relations with countries that were part of the Warsaw Pact and COMECON - organizations that were integral in forming the bipolar world of the Cold War. In the south of the territory, in the historical district of Kupchino, which was built up in 1964-1968 and 1972-1985, most street names, avenues, and boulevards were given to honor the capitals or geographical features of European countries of the Eastern bloc, as well as socialists who came from these states.

In 1964 Belgrade, Budapest, Bucharest, Prague, and Sofia streets acquired their current names. The same year three streets of the district were named after famous socialists. One was the Czechoslovak journalist and Communist party activist Julius Fuchik (1903-1943). Another was the journalist, member of the Executive Committee and Presidium of the Comintern of Hungarian origin Bela Kun (1886-1938). Bulgarian revolutionary, one of the leaders of the Comintern, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party in 1948-1949 Georgi Dimitrov (1882-1949) also had a street named after them. Dunaysky Avenue received its name in 1968, and Malaya Balkanskaya, Karpatskaya, Malaya Karpatskaya, and Zagreb Boulevard streets - in 1973. The same year Jaroslav Hasek street (1983-1923), a Czech writer, Red Army Commissar, and Communist, appeared. One of the last names was Malaya Bukharestskaya street (1980) and Moravsky lane (1983) [3].

Saint Petersburg State University of Civil Aviation and United Museum of Civil Aviation

With the end of World War II, the ideological and scientific-technical confrontation of the Cold War turned almost all spheres of science, education, and culture into scenes and instruments of global competition.

At the turn of the 1950s-1960s, the military-scientific-industrial complex of the USSR developed intensively [4], including the aviation industry. As new technologies began to emerge, military and civil aviation saw massive innovations during this period [5]. This was followed by the reorganization and creation of new educational and scientific research centers.

A significant number of research and educational institutions for training new personnel were located in Moscow and the Moscow region. However, in the 1950s training schools and universities also began to appear in Leningrad.

Even before WWII civil aviation and air transportation increasingly became important in the US, with planes being built for these purposes. However, other NATO member countries also participated in developing their civil aviation industry. In 1949 the British air company “de Havilland Aircraft Company” introduced the airliner “Comet” with a capacity of up to 60 passengers [6].

Due to the scientific and technological rivalry of the Cold War, it was important for the Soviet Union to surpass Western achievements in all sectors, including the aviation industry. To achieve this goal for civil aviation, it was necessary to expand its working staff.

As a result, from the 1950s to the 1980s more than twenty new higher and secondary education institutions appeared in the USSR. In 1955, a decree from the Soviet government founded the Higher Aviation School in Leningrad on Liteyny Prospekt. It was formed based on the preexisting Party School of Political Management of the Higher Aviation School. In 1971, the School was awarded the Order of Lenin because of its achievements in training aviation personnel and renamed the Order of Lenin Academy of Civil Aviation [7]. Today the Joint Museum of Civil Aviation is in the former location of the academy. In 1993 the Joint Museum of Civil Aviation united the former History Museum of the Academy of Civil Aviation and the History Museum of the Leningrad Civil Aviation Administration. The Museum has a separate section of the exhibition dedicated to Soviet air transport and aviation education in Leningrad in the 1940-70s.

Marine Station

The Marine Station was built in 1982 by the architect V. A. Sokhin for the Baltic Shipping Company. At the same time, the building served as a station for guests arriving by sea - the first four floors were reserved just for passenger rooms. The last three floors were a base for sailors from different ships [8].

Baltic Plant

Scientific achievements were an expression of the Cold War, where both sides allocated large sums of money to compete against each other. Short-term dominance in any scientific sector became a source of national pride. The Baltic Plant played an important role in the development and construction of marine equipment during the Cold War. Founded in 1856 by merchant M. Carr and engineer M. L. MacPherson, the plant carried out new projects of sea vessels which were later developed by other shipbuilding enterprises. From 1970 to 1990, seven nuclear-powered icebreakers, multiple timber and ore carriers, refrigerated vessels, tankers (including chemical tankers), and research vessels such as the `Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov` and `Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin` designed to support manned space flights, were constructed at the Baltic Plant [25].

The Cold War rivalry manifested itself in the Arctic region, which was a strategically important region from a military point of view. Development projects for submarines and icebreakers were integral to the Soviet goal of extending their influence into the Arctic. One of the most famous Soviet achievements in this field was the world's first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin," launched in December 1957. It was part of the goal of developing “the peaceful atom” during the Cold War. The “peaceful atom” was a proclamation followed by different programs to use atom energy in non-military spheres. Several methods used for building this nuclear icebreaker laid the framework for the creation of new icebreakers.

The Baltic plant began producing “Arctic” class nuclear-powered icebreakers in 1971. The first of these were created for the exploration of the Arctic seas. On August 17, 1977, at 4 a.m. Moscow time, the nuclear-powered icebreaker “Arktika” reached the geographical point of the North pole using active navigation for the first time in the world. The national flag of the Soviet Union was planted at the North pole [26]. Scientists conducted several studies and observations while there. The last event before departing the North Pole was planting a memorial plate with the image of the USSR state emblem and the inscription: "USSR. 60 years of October, i /b "Arktika", latitude 90° - N, 1977. " into the waters of the Arctic ocean. The data collected during the expedition was used for further construction of ships. Devices developed in Riga which measured the thickness of the ice cover was tested for this first time [27]. The icebreaker "Arktika", carrying out the vessel `Polarstern`, also participated in the German Arctic expedition, whose purpose was researching the Alpha Ridge.

Achievements and equipment built at the Baltic plant were actively promoted by the Soviet government. One method for promoting socialist ideas and Soviet achievements was visual propaganda. This included stamps depicting prominent figures of the Soviet Union, important events and holidays in the country's history, as well as achievements in economic, political, and social spheres. A striking example of such propaganda is a Soviet postage stamp introduced in 1977 honoring the nuclear icebreaker "Arctic" and its campaign to the North pole.

Aviator Park

One of the many monuments that praise the development of the Soviet military-industrial complex and the heroism of the Soviet people during the Cold War is located in Aviator park. This park was founded in 1966 in the Moscow district at the site of the former Corps Airfield. The Corps Airfield was dissolved at the beginning of the 20th century and was one of the first airfields in Russia. In the park, there is a monument devoted to aviators. It is represented by a model of the MiG-19 fighter.

The MiG-19 was a second-generation Soviet jet fighter developed in the early 1950s. This fighter was exported to countries friendly to the USSR and was actively used in military operations during the Cold War. During the Second Indochina War, these aircraft were one of the main means of protecting the air borders of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the People’s Republic of China. They were also delivered to some Middle Eastern countries [17].

Aviator Park and its main monument to aviators represent traditional Cold War rhetoric about the bipolar world, armed conflicts, the arms race, all spheres where the MiG-19 played an integral part. One example was the aircraft’s role in the well-known U-2 Incident. On May 1, 1960. Soviet command took two MiG-19 aircraft to intercept the American spy plane U-2 piloted by Gary Powers. Subsequently, one of the MIGs was shot down and the pilot was killed. Gary Powers was caught and convicted of espionage by a Soviet court. However, he was exchanged for the Soviet intelligence officer William Fischer in Berlin in 1962 [18]. Precisely because of introducing MIG-19, Soviet intelligence could finally counter U-2 missions which had been flying over Soviet territory since at least 1958. MiG-19 aircraft were also important for Soviet diplomatic relations with its allies, however, this sometimes led to some unpleasant situations. One example was the Chinese government questioning the quality of one of the aircraft deliveries, leading to strict checks being carried out at the plant after [19].

The history of Aviator Park is not only about the technological power of the USSR or the military conflicts of the Cold War. It also represents international cooperation within the Eastern bloc and its manifestation in the Soviet people’s daily lives.

During the warm season of every year in the 1970s and 1980s, the Czechoslovak Luna Park came to Aviator Park. This is often recalled by residents of the district when speaking of the Soviet past [20]. Such parks were described as "Islands of foreign countries", that attracted the attention of children and adults alike during that time.

Internationalist Park

Internationalist park is located in Kupchino district (the south of Saint Petersburg), not far from the metro station “Prospekt Slavy”.

Internationalist park is thought to be a reminder of the Soviet-Afghan War, which was one of the proxy wars between the USSR and the USA.

Initially, the park was not devoted to the memory of this war. It was founded in 1984-1986 but got its name in 1988 to honor the internationalists who perished in Afghanistan from 1979-1989. Internationalists were honored because they were soldiers, internal affairs officers, and state security agencies of Socialist states officers who took part voluntarily or on duty in military conflicts, occurring in other states, on the side of `communist` and `anti-imperialist movements. They believed or were made to believe that they led the “people's liberation movement”. It was called a strategy of interference in the name of peace. So, Internationalists were perceived as the national heroes in the Socialist states. The Soviet-Afghan War was a civil war that was one of the longest-lasting conflicts of the Cold War. The USSR maintained the political interests of Afghanistan helping this state military. According to Soviet sources from that era, on May 8, 1978, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan requested official help to form security agencies. Some current Russian sources also refer to an agreement signed for three months that allowed the Soviets to help Afghanistan prepare national personnel, supply communication facilities and military equipment as well as in conduct intelligence and counterintelligence. However, according to American sources, it was an intervention. Debates on the conflict became a hot topic during the late 1970s and 1980s. These debates continue to this day because the agreement to which the Russian sources refer is admitted secret.

Afghanistan has always been of particular interest due to its geopolitical position. Some examples include “The Great Game” between the British and the Russian Empires or recent American involvement. Afghanistan was considered one of the main pillars in ensuring the military and political stability of the Central Asian region, which is why the world's leading powers fought for control of this state. The participation of the Soviet troops in the Afghan war impacted the Soviet’s reputation during the military operations in Afghanistan. On January 3, 1980, U.S. President Jimmy Carter issued a statement delaying the ratification of SALT II and on January 6, the U.S issued sanctions. The United States, China, and 60 other countries boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympic games in condemnation of the USSR.

Nowadays the park has two ponds, a street amphitheater, the Church of St. George (1997-2003), a monument devoted to the internationalist soldiers, and a monument to special forces who died on combat missions [28]. The monument to the internationalist soldiers, the main monument of the park, was made by the sculptor N. A. Gordievsky and the architect N. A. Tarasova. This memorial is represented by a statue of a grieving mother, two figures of fighters, two granite steles in the form of rocks, and granite steles with the names of fallen soldiers. It was opened on October 3, 1998.

"Zvyozdnaya" metro station

"Zvyozdnaya" station is located on the south of the Moskovsko-Petrogradskaya Line (blue line) of the Saint Petersburg Metro.

The station was opened in 1972. Its interior is inspired by space themes and is represented in the design of the hall.

Space was initially thought of as another sector of Cold War competition. Nikita Khrushchev, head secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953, understood the necessity to develop the Soviet’s spacefaring capabilities because he believed the Soviet Union could lead in this field. In 1961 John F Kennedy stated in his inauguration speech that the United States would commit to improving its space exploration efforts. This was in response to the launch of the Soviet space satellite Sputnik 1 in 1957. Kennedy expressed his confidence that America would be the first to put a human on the moon.

In 1972, the year of the station's opening, the USSR and the United States signed an agreement on cooperation for space exploration and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes. Under the agreement, joint activities were planned. One outcome was the Soyuz-Apollo program. This mission was proof that despite the open ideological confrontation between the United States and the USSR, productive cooperation was nevertheless possible [21].

A book devoted to the architecture of the Leningrad metro describes the interior of "Zvyozdnaya" station as follows: "... the walls of the underground hall (designed by architects Y.V. Belinsky, G. A. Mikhailov, and G. A. Shikhaleva) are slightly inclined inward and coated with light marble "Coelga". Aluminum profiles are laid in the horizontal seams of the lining. The light cornice is made of curved aluminum sheets. Treated with a sandblaster, they received a variety of textured finish" [22]. At the end of the hall, some stars decorate aluminum lattices. Furthermore, one of the main decorative elements of the station is a sculpture dedicated to the first person who visited outer space – Yuri Gagarin. The sculpture was made by sculptors I. N. Kostyukhin, E. R. Ozol, and V. S. Novikov, and was installed in the ticket hall of the metro station [23].

It is worth noting that "Zvyozdnaya" has become one of the few three-span stations, i.e. stations without side landing platforms. One notable element of this type of station is the doorways and their external design. Each of these openings is "processed with rounded strips of corrugated metal" [24]. It makes the appearance of the station more memorable.